By Nina Baym

Beginnings to 1700

• Christopher Columbus landed in August 6, 1492
• 1584: colonization of Virginia
• Until 1600’s, the indigenous population dwindled drastically, to the point of needing to bring African slaves to the continent
• 1609: First Charter was made
• The League of the Five Nations was formed (Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Cayuga, Onodaga)
• Oral literature varied across North America
• Transcribing and translation indigenous oral literature required collaboration
• In the early days, Spain (under Ferdinand and Isabella) undertook most of the expeditions to North America
• Pre-1700 literature consisted of indigenous oral tradition, letters to benefactors, and first hand accounts
• 25 versions of creation myths (versions or independent myths?)
• Creation myths are the foundations of cultural outlook (p. 17)
• J.W. Lloyd worked with Pima man Thin Leather to record stories (p. 17)
• Warfare was common place in Iroquois life
• Iroquois peace rituals was given through Deganawidah, the Peacemaker (p. 18)
• David Cusick was of Tuscarora origin and transcribed the Iroquois creation story (p. 18)
• • Christopher Columbus established Hispaniola (in the Caribbean) in the 1490’s unsuccessfully, ruining relationships with the settlers and the Indigenous people there.
• Cabeza de Vaca was born to a prestigious family: son of an alderman, grandson of a conqueror, and a descendant of a hero who fought against the Moors (p. 29).
• Cabeza de Vaca went on
• Panfilo de Narvaez’ expedition to Florida, which left them stranded and Cabeza de Vaca to fend for himself. (p. 29)
• Cabeza de Vaca was a Karankawa prisoner but made his way from the Texas coast to New Mexico where he became a leader of Pimas and Opatas. (p. 30)
• Cabeza de Vaca encountered slavers (notable Diego de Alcaraz) and spoke out against them. However, this was against the colonies interested and he was imprisoned and exiled. (p. 30)
• John Smith had a military background, fighting in many wars.
• William Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth.
• William Bradford was influenced by Nonconformists (who were Separatists from the Church of England). He followed them to the Netherlands and eventually went on the Mayflower to Plymouth.

The Iroquois Creation Story: A Tale of the Foundation of the Great Island, Now North America; the Two Infants Born, and the Creation of the Universe

• The Iroquois thought there was two worlds: the lower and upper world (p. 19)
• The Iroquois thought that the foundations of North American was upon the earth on the back of a turtle, in order to cushion the fall of a woman from the upper world (p. 19)
• Good vs. evil twin trope
• The Iroquois thought the first two Earth-born humans were twins: Enigorio (the good mind) and Enigonhahetgea (p. 19-20)
  • Enigorio created the sun, moon, stars, animals, rivers, creeks, humans (Eagwehowe) (p. 20)
  • Enigonhahetgea made mountains, falls, reptiles, apes (p. 20)
• The brothers engaged in a duel to determine who would reign over the universe, where Enigorio only won by deception (p. 21)
  • Is the good mind, really good, then?
• Enigonhahetgea was defeated Enigorio and became the Evil Spirit, who would rule souls after death (p. 21)

The (Pima) Story of the Creation

• The Pima thought there was one person at the beginning of the universe: Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai (The Doctor of the Earth) (p. 21)
• Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai created the world, taking four attempts many times (p. 21)
• Four was an important number to many Indigenous people (p. 21)
• Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai created Noo-ee (the Buzzard) who did nothing
• Doctor-stone (diamonds) were smashed to make the stars (p. 22)
• Emphasis on utility in the Pima Creation Story (p. 22)
• Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai made four iterations of humans
• The Pima thought the Sun was male and the Moon was female, and they met once a month (p. 22)
• The Pima thought the moon birthed a baby, a coyote, and confronted Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai and Nooee (p. 22)
• A Northen person named See-ur-huh/Ee-ee-toy (meaning older brother) and pries governance from lazy Juh-wert-a-Mah-kai (p. 22)

Select Documents Illustrating the Four Voyages of Columbus

• In his first voyage, Columbus wrote to Ferdinand and Isabella and mentioned islands that he named: San Salvador, Isla de Santa Maria de Concepcion, Fernandina, Isabella, Isla Juana, and Espanola. These islands were forested and fertile. (p. 26)
• In his fourth voyage, Columbos wrote to Ferdinand and Isabella and detailed his misfortunes on the journey. He was imprisoned and robbed. He pleads for their favour (AKA money). (p. 27-28)

The Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca

• Cabeza de Vaca throws everything upon “the will of God.” He often called upon his faith to get him through the pain. (p. 31, 34)
• Cabeza de Vaca refers to the slavers as Christians continouously (p. 36)
  • **Is this irony?
• Despite sympathizing with the Indigenous people, Cabeza de Vaca refers to them as “barbarous.” (p. 31)
• The Malhado people grieved together. They buried loved ones.(p. 32)
• Food was scarce for the Malhado people. They ate roots and scavenged for oysters. Often would they go without food for several days. Despite this, they are generous with each other. (p. 31)
• Medicine men are of great importance to the Malhado people. When they passed, they were cremated and their remains were consumed as a drink. They possessed more than one wife. (p. 32)
• Malhado husbands are not allowed to interact with his in-laws. Wives may. (p. 32)
• Malhado men are not clothes but women are partly clothed. (p. 32)
• The Avavares people let Cabeza de Vaca live freely. (p. 32) [] Who are the Moors? Morocco?
• Cabeza de Vaca left the Avavares and joined the Arbadaos, who did not have much food. However, he did collaborate with them. (p. 32) [] did the Avavares know how much they did suffered or was Cabeza de Vaca just accustomed to more luxurious life?
• The women Cabeza de Vaca encountered nursed their children until 12 because of the lack of food. (p. 32)
• The men Cabeza de Vaca encountered were free to leave their wife and take up another, as long as they do not have children. (p. 32)
• All fighting that Cabeza de Vaca witnessed were not fatal and did not involved weapons. (p. 34)
• Cabeza de Vaca readily told Diego de Alcaraz the location of the Indigenous people. (p. 35)
• Alcaraz wanted to make the Indigenous people that Cabeza de Vaca was allied with, slaves. This lead to an argument. (p. 35)
• The Indigenous people gave Cabeza de Vaca to another neighbour, as is custom. (p. 36)
• The Indigenous people saw Alcaraz in a bad light, likening him to the sunset whereas Cabeza de Vaca was like the sun. (p. 36)
• Cabeza de Vaca thought that they left the Indigenous people in peace but Alcaraz likely enslaved them, despite that. (p. 36)

The General History of Virginia

• Lots of labour was involved in building Virginia.
• John Smith was captured by Indigenous people. However, the gifts he brought won their favour and became the honorary son of the King.
• Pocohontas intervened in John Smith’s execution and Smith was free to go back to Jamestown.

Smith’s Farewell to Virginia

• Wished well for the land but lamented how much work there was to do.

A Description of New England

• Sought to convert the Indigenous to Christianity and also make the way of life comparable to that of everyday life in England.
• Enticed people to come and work the land to contribute.

Of Plymouth Plantation

• God’s providence was